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Part 1 - ISAIAH"How thou art fallen from Heaven, O "Lucifer", son of the morning!"
Isa 14:12-14 How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning! how art thou cut down to the ground, which did weaken the nations! For you have said in your heart, "I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne above the stars of God: I will sit also upon the mount of the congregation, in the sides of the north: I will ascend above the heights of the clouds; I will be like the most High".
Eze 28:11-17 Moreover the word of the LORD came unto me, saying, Son of man, take up a lamentation upon the king of Tyrus, and say unto him, Thus saith the Lord GOD; You seal up the sum, full of wisdom, and perfect in beauty. You have been in Eden the garden of God; every precious stone was your covering, the sardius, topaz, and the diamond, the beryl, the onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald, and the carbuncle, and gold: the workmanship of your tabrets [H8608 - tambourine: - tabret, timbrel] and of thy pipes was prepared in you in the day that you were created. You are the anointed cherub that covers; and I have set you so: you were upon the holy mountain of God; you have walked up and down in the midst of the stones of fire. You were perfect in your ways from the day that you were created, until iniquity was found in you.
By the multitude of your merchandise they have filled the midst of you with violence, and you have sinned: therefore I will cast you as profane out of the mountain of God: and I will destroy you, O covering cherub, from the midst of the stones of fire. Your heart was lifted up because of your beauty, you have corrupted your wisdom by reason of your brightness: I will cast you to the ground, I will lay you before kings, that they may behold you.
This, we are told, is a perfect description of how the perfect archangel, Lucifer, a shining light bringing cherub, became Satan the Devil.
Is there any truth to this theory?
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Satan was never perfect and then decided by his own free will to become God's Adversary, Satan.
Neither has a single human started out perfect and then decided by his own free will to become a sinner!
The problem with this "Lucifer fell" theory is twofold: poor translation and poor interpretation.
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First, Isaiah 14 - To whom is God addressing Himself in the verses quoted above?
Isa 14:4 That thou shalt take up this proverb against the king of Babylon...
God is speaking of, to, and about, "the king of Babylon," not Lucifer, not Satan, not a cherub. And God tells us about the end of this MAN'S reign:
Isa 14:11 Thy [king of Babylon] pomp is brought down to the grave [Satan has never died or been put in a grave], and the noise of thy [king of Babylon] viols [harps or lutes]: the worm is spread under thee, and the worms cover thee [do maggots consume a spiritual body?].
What about verse 12 though? Is not "Lucifer" one and the same as Satan?
Verse 12 is where we're told that God stops speaking about the king of Babylon and begins speaking on the origin of Satan.
First of all, what does the end of the king of Babylon have to do with the beginning of Satan?
Isa 14:12 How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning!...
Notice that back in verse 4 God says to take up this proverb against the "king of Babylon".
Next, let's pick up this proverb in verse 10 after all the "trees" (different people which feared the king), are at rest because of the king's demise...
Isa 14:10-11 All they shall speak and say unto thee [king of Babylon], Art thou [king of Babylon] also become weak as we? Art thou [king of Babylon] become like unto us [mortals, not gods from Heaven]? Thy [king of Babylon] pomp is brought down to the grave, and the noise of thy [king of Babylon] viols: the worm is spread under thee [king of Babylon], and the worms cover thee [king of Babylon]. How art thou [king of Babylon] fallen from heaven... O Lucifer... ?!?
What is this? How can, the king of Babylon, the king of Babylon, the king of Babylon, the king of Babylon, the king of Babylon, the king of Babylon, the king of Babylon, the king of Babylon (made reference to eight times in two sentences), suddenly turn into "Lucifer" in the middle of a sentence?
And where are we ever told, in the entirety of Scripture, that "Lucifer" is a proper name for Satan?
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The Untold Origin of Lucifer
American Heritage College Dictionary, Lucifer n. 1. The archangel cast from heaven for leading the revolt of the angels; Satan. < OE, morning star, Lucifer < Latin Lucifer < lucifer, light-bringer: lux, luc-, light" (page 821).
The very next word under "Lucifer" is, "luciferase n. An enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of luciferin."
And the word that follows "luciferase" in this same dictionary is: "luciferin n. A chemical substance present in the cells of bioluminescent organisms, such as fireflies that produce a bluish-green light when oxidized. [Latin Lucifer, light-bringing; see LUCIFER + -IN.]" (page. 821).
Luciferin? "Lucifer + in." ?!?
Lucifer is the "chemical bioluminescence' in the cells of fireflies!
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And so what do fireflies have to do with the king of Babylon or Satan the devil?
Was Satan once a "light-bringing firefly"?
No. Then how in the world did we get this Latin word "lucifer" as part of Isa 14:12, in so many English Bibles?
Was Satan once a "light-bringing firefly"?
No. Then how in the world did we get this Latin word "lucifer" as part of Isa 14:12, in so many English Bibles?
First, just who was it that fell from heaven, and does the phrase "fallen from heaven" prove that this person had to have been in God's throne room, or at least in interstellar space in order for him to "fall from heaven" therefore proving that this must be a spirit being only?
No - it is a figure of speech. Here is proof from none other than Jesus:
Luke 10:15 And you, Capernaum, which art exalted to heaven, shall be thrust down [from heaven] to hell [Gk: hades].
Here we have a whole city being thrown down from heaven to hades, their grave. And so it is with the king of Babylon whose "pomp is brought down to the grave" (Isa 14:11). These two Scriptures are exact parallel thoughts.
... back to "lucifer".
... back to "lucifer".
What is the Hebrew word found in the manuscripts that the translators turned into the Latin word Lucifer? It is very interesting... with a Strong's Concordance, look up this word Lucifer.
Right after the word Lucifer we are given a definition before we ever go to the Dictionary to find the meaning.
Here is what you will find: Lucifer (lu'sif-ur){1} Title applied to king of Babylon.
Here is what you will find: Lucifer (lu'sif-ur){1} Title applied to king of Babylon.
Clearly the editor of Strong's Concordance realized that this word (whatever it may mean) is to be applied to the "king of Babylon," and NOT TO SATAN THE DEVIL!
We are told that the word in question is Strong's H1966 which is heylel, [halal] (in the sense of brightness); the morning-star:--Lucifer.
"light-bringing-brightness-morning-star-Lucifer"
This word "Lucifer" appears no other place in Scripture.
Was Satan ever spoken of as a "light-bringing perfect archangel"? No.
This word "Lucifer" appears no other place in Scripture.
Was Satan ever spoken of as a "light-bringing perfect archangel"? No.
Satan is NOT an angel of light, neither has he ever been!
Satan appears as an angel of light to the world; he is transformed [tranfigured, or DISGUISE] into an angel of light, but it is an illusion, it is not true, it is a deception!
Paul expels any such theory that Satan knows anything about "light":
Eph 6:12 For we wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers [of whom, Satan is chief] of the DARKNESS of this world, against spiritual wickedness in high places.
heylel/halal
What is heylel/halal of Isaiah 14:12?
Here is the problem—too many translations, of previous translations, without checking the Hebrew manuscripts first.
Lucifer is the Latin Vulgate translation of the word "xosphoruos" in the Septuagint, which is a Greek version of the Hebrew of Isaiah 14:12, in which the King James translators (KJV) then translated over into the English as "Lucifer".
The Latin and the Greek, as well as a supposed form of a Hebrew word in verse 12 mean "bright shiner" or "shining one".
The problem is, however, that Isaiah 14:12 was not written in Latin or Greek, but in Hebrew.
The problem is, however, that Isaiah 14:12 was not written in Latin or Greek, but in Hebrew.
I assure you that "Lucifer" is not a Hebrew word, nor is it an English translation of a Hebrew word.
Lucifer is Latin, and is related to a group of Latin'ish derived English words including lucid, luciferin and luciferose, as we saw defined above, all of which suggest brightness or shining. Likewise xosphoros is the Greek derived English words such as, fluorescence and phosphorescence.
Lucifer is Latin, and is related to a group of Latin'ish derived English words including lucid, luciferin and luciferose, as we saw defined above, all of which suggest brightness or shining. Likewise xosphoros is the Greek derived English words such as, fluorescence and phosphorescence.
But, there seems to be no Hebrew or Aramaic text in which there is a word in this verse to correspond. What we find in all such texts is the word "hehlehl", "eill", which is a form of the Hebrew stem "yah-lahl", "ill".
And what is the meaning of "ill"?
It means HOWL. "Lucifer" turns out to be nothing more than a "howl"!
It has been suggested that the translators of the Septuagint (Hebrew into Greek) overlooked the smallest of the Hebrew letters or were using a copy in which it had been inadvertently omitted.
So, if the form of the world "eill", as it occurs in this particular text, were shortened to "ell", its meaning would be derived from a different root, in fact would be itself a different root, and the sense given in the Septuagint and the Vulgate would be at least understandable, with one giant exception...
There is still absolutely no reason or rule of grammar for turning this word into a personal name!
It could possibly mean "a shining one", but not a personal name such as "Lucifer".
Doubtless the translators followed the Vulgate as they did in most of their translating.
Doubtless the translators followed the Vulgate as they did in most of their translating.
Even such an eminent translator as Rotherham seemed to follow the Septuagint in this verse, however, from his comments within parenthesis, it is clear that he was fully aware of the fact that whatever this word meant, it was referring to none other than the context of these verses which is Babylon and not Satan:
"How has thou (Babylon—see context) fallen from heaven, O Shining One (O howl)—Son of the Dawn! (Babylon conspicuous as Venus). Hewn down to the earth, O crusher of nations."
Clearly the reference is to Babylon and none other. It was Babylon which was exalted to heaven (as conspicuous as Venus, the brightest star of the morning) in her wealth, power, and glory.
"How has thou (Babylon—see context) fallen from heaven, O Shining One (O howl)—Son of the Dawn! (Babylon conspicuous as Venus). Hewn down to the earth, O crusher of nations."
Clearly the reference is to Babylon and none other. It was Babylon which was exalted to heaven (as conspicuous as Venus, the brightest star of the morning) in her wealth, power, and glory.
Yet just as Capernaum, God says she (Babylon) is brought down to the earth, the one who was a "crusher of nations."
Another piece from Adam Clarke's commentary:
"O Lucifer, son of the morning - The Versions in general agree in this translation, and render הילל (heilel) as signifying Lucifer, Φωσφωρος, the morning star, whether Jupiter or Venus; as these are both bringers of the morning light, or morning stars, annually in their turn. And although the context speaks explicitly concerning Nebuchadnezzar, yet this has been, I know not why, applied to the chief of the fallen angels, who is most incongruously denominated Lucifer, (the bringer of light!) an epithet as common to him as those of Satan and Devil. That the Holy Spirit by his prophets should call this arch-enemy of God and man the light-bringer, would be strange indeed. But the truth is, the text speaks nothing at all concerning Satan nor his fall, nor the occasion of that fall, which many divines have with great confidence deduced from this text. O how necessary it is to understand the literal meaning of Scripture, that preposterous comments may be prevented! Besides, I doubt much whether our translation be correct. הילל (heilel), which we translate Lucifer, comes from ילל (yalal), yell, howl, or shriek, and should be translated, "Howl, son of the morning;" and so the Syriac has understood it; and for this meaning Michaelis contends: see his reasons in Parkhurst, under הלל (halal)."
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king James Usage:
Here is every king James rendering of the word that is found in the "Hebrew" texts and transliterations of its various forms in every occurrence in the entire KJV Bible.
In all Hebrew or Aramaic texts of Isa. 14:12, the only word found is "heh-lehl", "eill", which is a form of the Hebrew stem "yah-lahl", "ill", meaning howl.
Here is Kittel's Hebrew Text for the Hebrew Stem "ill"—"yah-lahl"—HOWL:
| Isa. 13:6 | eiliu | Howl ye |
| Isa. 14:31 | eili | Howl |
| Isa. 15:2 | iilil | shall howl |
| Isa. 15:3 | iilil | shall howl |
| Isa. 16:7 | iilil | Howl |
| Isa. 16:7 | iilil | shall howl |
| Isa. 23:1 | eililu | Howl ye |
| Isa. 23:6 | eililu | Howl ye |
| Isa. 23:14 | eililu | Howl ye |
| Isa. 52:5 | eililu | make to howl |
| Isa. 65:14 | eililu | shall howl |
| Jer. 4:8 | ueililu | Howl |
| Jer. 25:34 | eililu | Howl |
| Jer. 47:2 | ueill | and shall howl |
| Jer. 48:20 | eilili | Howl |
| Jer. 48:31 | ailil | will I howl |
| Jer. 48:39 | eililu | They shall howl (Howl ye) |
| Jer. 49:3 | eilili | Howl (Howl ye) |
| Jer. 51:8 | eililu | howl |
| Ezek.30:2 | eililu | Howl ye |
| Hos. 7:14 | iililu | They howled |
| Joel 1:5 | ueililu | And howl |
| Joel 1:11 | eililu | howl |
| Joel 1:13 | eililu | And shall be howlings |
| Amos 8:1 | ueililu | and howl |
| Micah 1:8 | uailile | howl ye |
| Zeph. 1:11 | aililu | Howl |
| Zech.11:2 | eill | howl |
| Zech.11:2 | eililu | howl |
| Isa. 14:12 | eill | Lucifer(??) |
I don't believe you have to be a Hebrew scholar to see at a glance that "Lucifer" is totally out of place in this list.
The meaning of this word is clear; "eill" is a verb that means "HOWL", and not a noun than can be twisted into a personal name such as "Lucifer"!
Notice carefully that the Hebrew verb "eill", in Isa 14:12 is the identical form of the first verb "eill" in Zech 11:2.
Now try substituting the personal noun "Lucifer" in place of the verb "howl" in the two places it occurs in Zech 11:2. Here, as in many Scriptures, the trees are likened to people who are crying out (howling!) because of the death and destruction:
"Lucifer, fir tree; for the cedar is fallen; because the mighty are spoiled: Lucifer, O ye oaks of Bashan; for the forest of the ventage is come down."
Such a translation would be nonsense.
Let's try it back in Isa. 14 where we find the word Lucifer in verse 12, and notice how this word is translated in verse 31:
Instead of "Howl, O gate; cry, O city..." We would have, "Lucifer, O gate; cry, O city..."
Instead of "Howl, O gate; cry, O city..." We would have, "Lucifer, O gate; cry, O city..."
Again, such a translation would be nonsense, as it is also nonsense in Isaiah 14:12.
Kittel, in a footnote, informs us that it is only the Septuagint (which is the Greek Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures) that we find this word "ell" instead of "eill".
This word was translated into eospearos, which Jerome translated into Lucifer with a capital "L," which the king James translators carried over into English without checking the HEBREW manuscripts, which would have solved this dilemma.
All Hebrew manuscripts have "eill" in Isaiah 14:12, and remember that the Old Testament was written in Hebrew, NOT Greek or Latin!
What a difference a Hebrew "yode" ("i'—iota) makes. We dare not leave out the iotas.
Mat 5:18 For verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot [iota] or one tittle [yod] shall in NO WISE PASS from the law, till all be fulfilled.
A "jot" is a Greek "iota" and in Hebrew a "tittle" is a "yod", which is the very smallest stroke in a Hebrew letter. And just how important are those little iotas?
The difference between the absence of "i", or the presence of "i", is the reason why, we have the Lucifer problem! Don't forget to "dot your "i's" and cross your "t's"!
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The difference between the absence of "i", or the presence of "i", is the reason why, we have the Lucifer problem! Don't forget to "dot your "i's" and cross your "t's"!
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Now back to Isaiah 14. With "Lucifer" out of the way, let's read a couple versions other than the kJV and see how they dealt with this strange word "ell" which comes to us by way of the Greek Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate:
"How you are fallen from heaven, O morning star, son of the dawn!" You are hacked down to the earth, destroyer of nations" (New International Version)
"How you are fallen from heaven, O Day Star, son of Dawn! (New Revised Standard Version)
There is absolutely no reason to capitalize "day", "star", or "dawn" in this last version.
Here is how the Concordant Literal Old Testament translates this verse by following the Hebrew Manuscripts rather than the Catholic Latin Bible:
"How you have fallen from the heavens! Howl, son of the dawn! You are hacked down to the earth, defeater of all nations."
It is the king of Babylon who elevated himself to high heaven in the heavens of his own mind, and it is the same king of Babylon who has "fallen from the heavens", and it is the same king of Babylon who is "hacked down to the earth", and it is the same king of Babylon who was the "defeater of all nations", and not a "perfect Satan."
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HOWL?!
Just to further drive the stake into this, what does every single verse of Scripture that uses the word "howl" have in common with Isa 14:12?
"Howl, son of the dawn."
There is a reason why God tells the people in thirty some verses, "To HOWL..." And it is the very same reason that the "...son of the dawn" is to "Howl" rather than to "Lucifer" or light up like a firefly or some other unscriptural nonsense! Let's look at just a few:
Isa 13:6 Howl ye [why?]; for the day of the Lord is at hand; it shall come as a DESTRUCTION from the Almighty [that's why]!
Isa 14:31 Howl, [why?] O gate; cry, O city; thou; whole Palestina, are DISSOLVED [that's why]...
Isa 23:1 The burden of Tyre, Howl [why?], ye ships of Tarshish; for it is LAID WASTE [that's why]...
Isa 23:6 Pass ye over to Tarshish; howl, ye inhabitants of the isle" [why?]"...the Lord has given a commandment against the merchant city, to DESTROY THE STRONG HOLDS THEREOF [that's why]" (Ver. 11).
Isa 23:14 Howl [why?], ye ships of Tarshish: for your strength is LAID WASTE [that's why].
Isa 65:14-15 Behold, my servants shall sing for joy of heart, but you shall cry for sorrow of heart, and shall howl [why?] for vexation of spirit. And you shall leave your name for a curse unto my chosen: for the Lord God shall SLAY YOU [that's why]...
Jer 25:34 & Jer 25:37 Howl [why?], ye shepherds, and cry; and wallow yourselves in the ashes, ye principal of the flock: for the day of your SLAUGHTER and of your DISPERSIONS are accomplished: and ye shall FALL like a pleasant vessel... And the peaceable habitations ARE CUT DOWN because of the fierce anger of the Lord [that's why].
Jer 51:8-9 Babylon is suddenly FALLEN and DESTROYED: howl [why?] for her... for her JUDGMENT REACHES UNTO HEAVEN [that's why]...
Amos 8:3 And the songs of the temple shall be howlings [why?] in that day, says the Lord God; there shall be MANY DEAD BODIES IN EVERY PLACE [that's why]...
Micah 1:8-9 Therefore I will wail and howl [why?] I will go stripped and naked: I will make a wailing like the dragons, and mourning as the owls. For her WOUND IS INCURABLE [that's why]...
If you wish, you may check every single Scripture that contains the word "howl", and you will find the same declarations of death and destruction.
In a few of the above verses using "howl," we saw the following: destroy, destroyed, destruction, fall, fallen, judgment reaches heaven, cut down, laid waste, dissolved, etc.
In Isaiah 13 & 14 we find the following words and phrases regarding the destruction of Babylon:
Howl ye [why?]... for the day of the Lord is at hand... it shall come as a DESTRUCTION from the Almighty... every man's heart shall melt... they shall be afraid, pangs and sorrows... they shall be in pain... cruel... wrath... fierce anger... desolate... destroy the sinners... I will punish the world for their evil... shake the heavens... remove the earth... day of His fierce anger... flee every one... thrust through... fall by the sword... dashed to pieces... their wives ravished... dash the young men to pieces... no pity... as when God overthrew Sodom... never be inhabited... their houses shall be full of doleful [pain causing] creatures... brought down to the grave... cut down to the ground... brought down [from visions of heaven] to hell [Heb. sheol/grave]... cast out... thrust through... go down... slaughter... cut off... besom [the clean sweep of a broom] of destruction... etc., etc.
THAT'S WHY!
Now can you see why God would suggest that the king of Babylon should, "howl"?
They think these verses are talking about the fall of a heavenly firefly, otherwise known as Satan, but NEVER once is Satan called "Lucifer" in all of the entirety of Scripture?????
They think these verses are talking about the fall of a heavenly firefly, otherwise known as Satan, but NEVER once is Satan called "Lucifer" in all of the entirety of Scripture?????
No, Babylon, the greatest kingdom of nations in the history of the world is coming down to the grave! Just like Capernaum, Babylon was EXALTED TO HEAVEN, but is being brought down to hades (the grave of death and destruction).
Theologians and translators would try to deceive us into believing that all this is a statement about "How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer."
What is actually spoken of in these two chapters of Isaiah 13 & 14 is the history of world religion and government from the creation of man, through the destruction of man, and the realization of God's spiritual Mt. Zion filling the universe.
All the religions and governments of the world in the history of the world are personified in these two chapters.
Isa 13:1 begins with, "The burden of Babylon..." (organized religion and government against God), and ends with Isa 14:32b, "That the Lord has founded Zion..." (The spiritual capital of the Universe governing all mankind).
Isa 13:1 begins with, "The burden of Babylon..." (organized religion and government against God), and ends with Isa 14:32b, "That the Lord has founded Zion..." (The spiritual capital of the Universe governing all mankind).
So far then there is no sign of Satan in the verses covered in Isaiah 14. Let's proceed with verses 13-14:
"For you [king of Babylon] have said in your [king of Babylon] heart, I [king of Babylon] will ascend into heaven, I [king of Babylon] will exalt my [king of Babylon] throne above the stars of God: I [king of Babylon] will sit also upon the mount of the congregation in the sides of the north: I [king of Babylon] will ascend above the heights of the clouds; I [king of Babylon] will be like the most High"
This language should not surprise us seeing that this is a continuation of Babylon and it's puffed up king! The same system that started at Babel, where they first thought to build:
"For you [king of Babylon] have said in your [king of Babylon] heart, I [king of Babylon] will ascend into heaven, I [king of Babylon] will exalt my [king of Babylon] throne above the stars of God: I [king of Babylon] will sit also upon the mount of the congregation in the sides of the north: I [king of Babylon] will ascend above the heights of the clouds; I [king of Babylon] will be like the most High"
This language should not surprise us seeing that this is a continuation of Babylon and it's puffed up king! The same system that started at Babel, where they first thought to build:
"a tower whose top may reach unto heaven" (Gen 11:4).
All Christians know the story of the "Tower of Babel (Babylon)".
Now verse 15:
"Yet you [king of Babylon] shall be brought down to hell [sheol—the grave], to the sides of the pit [cistern, hole, dungeon, or possibly crypt]"
The only time that Satan will be put in a prison is during Christ's Millennial Reign.
"Yet you [king of Babylon] shall be brought down to hell [sheol—the grave], to the sides of the pit [cistern, hole, dungeon, or possibly crypt]"
The only time that Satan will be put in a prison is during Christ's Millennial Reign.
This is speaking of the demise of the king of Babylon, not the death of Satan.
Verse 16:
"They that see you [king of Babylon, no man has ever seen Satan!] shall narrowly [gaze] upon you, and consider you [king of Babylon], saying, Is this the man ["man'? This is no Satan, but a "MAN" - Satan is God's created spiritual Adversary! A spiritual being] that made the earth to tremble, that did shake kingdoms."
Just like the Pharaohs and many rulers of nations who taught and thought that they were "gods" represented in the stars of heaven, and who exalted themselves and their throne to heaven, likewise, this king of Babylon is nonetheless only "a MAN." And God Almighty tells him to "HOWL" because God is going to bring him "DOWN TO HADES/SHEOL" (the grave!).
"They that see you [king of Babylon, no man has ever seen Satan!] shall narrowly [gaze] upon you, and consider you [king of Babylon], saying, Is this the man ["man'? This is no Satan, but a "MAN" - Satan is God's created spiritual Adversary! A spiritual being] that made the earth to tremble, that did shake kingdoms."
Just like the Pharaohs and many rulers of nations who taught and thought that they were "gods" represented in the stars of heaven, and who exalted themselves and their throne to heaven, likewise, this king of Babylon is nonetheless only "a MAN." And God Almighty tells him to "HOWL" because God is going to bring him "DOWN TO HADES/SHEOL" (the grave!).
That is just what God did by the way, and the archaeological digs in Iraq prove it!
The fictitious story of Lucifer is a hoax. Isaiah 13 and 14 are not a description of the some fabled fall of Satan; only a pompous king who dies in infamy without even a proper burial.
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What about Ezekial 28? Click here!
Some of these excerpts are from my personal notes copied from 30+ years of studying... some of these notes are direct copies of various sources - I do not claim to have authored every word of this... it's just a mass collection I've tucked away over the years for my own personal studies... I didn't consider a bibliography at the time I directly copied small excerpts from various authors. Also, any emphasis (underlines, bold text, all CAPS, etc.) noted above was only meant to capture my personal attention as I studied...
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